The seeds of the 1965 India-Pakistan War were sown long before the first shots were fired. In 1947, British India was partitioned into two sovereign states—India and Pakistan—amid mass migration, violence, and bloodshed. The region of Jammu and Kashmir became an immediate flashpoint, as both countries claimed the princely state. The first war over Kashmir in 1947–48 resulted in the territory being divided, with Pakistan controlling the northwest portion and India controlling the larger remaining area, including the Kashmir Valley. However, the underlying tensions remained unresolved.
The early 1960s were politically turbulent for both countries. In India, the aftermath of the 1962 Sino-Indian War left the military and public morale shaken. Jawaharlal Nehru's death in 1964 also left a leadership vacuum, which was filled by Lal Bahadur Shastri. Pakistan, under President Ayub Khan, viewed this transition period as an opportunity to assert its claims over Kashmir through military means. Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir, being predominantly Muslim, would rise against Indian rule if given the chance.
The immediate trigger of the 1965 war was Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar—a plan to infiltrate Jammu and Kashmir with thousands of guerrilla fighters disguised as locals, with the goal of sparking an uprising against Indian administration. Launched in August 1965, the plan failed almost immediately. Far from inciting rebellion, the local population largely reported the infiltrators to Indian forces, resulting in large-scale skirmishes and arrests.
India responded swiftly by deploying its army to flush out the infiltrators. The situation escalated rapidly as skirmishes turned into full-scale confrontations along the Line of Control (LoC), particularly around areas like the Haji Pir Pass and Tithwal.
By early September 1965, the war had spread beyond Kashmir. On September 1, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam, targeting the town of Akhnoor in Jammu. The goal was to cut off India’s communications and supply lines in the region. This operation brought the two countries to the brink of full-scale war.
India counterattacked by launching a significant offensive across the international border in Punjab on September 6, marking the official beginning of the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965. Indian forces advanced into Lahore and other strategic points, forcing Pakistan to defend its own territory. This was a major strategic surprise for Pakistan, which had not anticipated an Indian assault on the broader front.
One of the most significant theaters of the war was the city of Lahore. Indian forces, under General Harbaksh Singh, made swift advances and reached the outskirts of Lahore within days. The fierce battle saw intense tank warfare, artillery barrages, and close-quarters infantry combat.
Despite initial successes, Indian troops did not capture Lahore, partly due to international pressure and the risks of escalation. However, their advance forced Pakistan to redirect its forces from Kashmir to defend its heartland.
Meanwhile, in the Sialkot sector, the two armies engaged in what would become one of the largest tank battles since World War II. Known as the Battle of Chawinda, it involved hundreds of tanks on both sides. Pakistani forces under General Yahya Khan put up a strong defense, preventing Indian troops from making deep advances into Sialkot.
The battle was a stalemate in terms of territorial gains, but it significantly depleted armored units on both sides. Chawinda became a symbol of Pakistani resistance, much like Khem Karan (Asal Uttar) did for India.
While the war was primarily fought on land, air and naval forces also played key roles. The Indian Navy played a limited role due to strategic restraint, while the Indian Air Force and Pakistan Air Force engaged in dogfights over multiple sectors, including Pathankot, Amritsar, and Sargodha.
Both air forces claimed numerous enemy aircraft downed. However, civilian and military infrastructure suffered significantly due to aerial bombing raids. This phase of the war showcased each country's growing aviation capabilities.
The global community reacted with growing concern as the war escalated. The United Nations quickly called for a ceasefire. The United States and the Soviet Union—both Cold War superpowers—applied diplomatic pressure on both nations to end hostilities. The U.S. imposed an arms embargo on both countries, while the Soviet Union offered to mediate peace talks.
China, while ideologically aligned with Pakistan, refrained from military intervention, issuing only diplomatic statements. This cautious stance by China helped prevent a larger regional conflict.
By mid-September 1965, both India and Pakistan were under growing pressure to de-escalate. The war had reached a stalemate, with neither side achieving a decisive victory. On September 22, the United Nations brokered a ceasefire, which was accepted by both countries.
In January 1966, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan) under Soviet mediation. The Tashkent Agreement was signed, requiring both nations to withdraw to pre-war positions and restore economic and diplomatic relations. Shastri died of a heart attack shortly after signing the agreement, adding a somber note to the event.
The 1965 war resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. India reported over 3,000 military deaths, while Pakistan’s official count stood around 3,800. Thousands more were wounded or went missing. Civilians were also impacted by bombing raids, displacement, and destruction of homes.
Militarily, both countries lost significant numbers of tanks, aircraft, and equipment. The war strained their economies and revealed deficiencies in planning, logistics, and intelligence.
In both India and Pakistan, the war was portrayed as a heroic struggle. Each nation claimed victory, with state-run media emphasizing national pride and unity. In Pakistan, the war was celebrated as a moral and spiritual triumph. In India, the army’s defense of critical points like Khem Karan was viewed as a symbol of national resilience.
However, analysts and historians largely agree that the war ended in a military and political stalemate. Neither side gained significant territory, and the fundamental dispute over Kashmir remained unresolved.
The war reaffirmed Kashmir’s central role in Indo-Pakistani hostilities. Despite the failure of Operation Gibraltar, Pakistan continued to view Kashmir as a core issue. In India, the war bolstered the national resolve to defend Kashmir at all costs.
The Kashmir dispute, therefore, remained a frozen conflict, setting the stage for future wars, most notably the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War that led to the creation of Bangladesh.
Both countries learned important military lessons from the war. India recognized the need to modernize its armed forces, strengthen its intelligence capabilities, and better integrate the three branches of its military. The Defense Ministry began a series of reforms to address deficiencies exposed during the conflict.
Pakistan, too, reassessed its military doctrine. The failure of Operation Gibraltar highlighted the limits of covert warfare and misjudging civilian support. Internal debates ensued within the Pakistani military establishment, eventually leading to changes in strategic thinking.
The 1965 war left a profound mark on South Asia. It hardened the India-Pakistan rivalry and deepened mistrust. It disrupted economic development and entrenched militarization. The war also solidified the centrality of Kashmir in the geopolitical imagination of both countries.
Culturally, the war inspired songs, films, and literature. Monuments were erected, and war heroes were commemorated. The narratives of bravery and sacrifice became part of national identity in both nations.
The India-Pakistan War of 1965 was a tragic episode in the long and painful history between the two nations. While it did not result in significant territorial changes, it entrenched positions and laid the groundwork for continued hostility. The Tashkent Agreement brought temporary calm but failed to address the core disputes.
Even decades later, the war continues to shape diplomatic, military, and political discourse in South Asia. It serves as a reminder of the cost of conflict and the fragility of peace between two nuclear-armed neighbors.